Fig. 4

Gallic acid (GA) inhibits signaling pathways of nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κB) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 macrophages. a Western blot analysis of p-P65 and p-IκB-α protein expression levels in RAW264.7 macrophages. b Confocal microscopy images of RAW264.7 macrophages. Cell nuclei are shown in blue (DAPI) and P65 is shown in green; RAW264.7 macrophages were pre-treated with GA (100 µM) for 16 h followed by the stimulation of LPS (1 µg/mL) for another 8 h. Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3). c–e, represent interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and nitric oxide (NO) in cell supernatant respectively. RAW264.7 macrophages were pre-treated with GA (100 µM) for 8 h followed by the stimulation of LPS (1 µg/mL) for another 16 h. ****P < 0.001 compared to the LPS group